Factor XIa is a plasma serine protease involved in the regulation of blood coagulation. While blood coagulation is a necessary and important part of the regulation of an organism's homeostasis, abnormal blood coagulation can also have deleterious effects. For instance, thrombosis is the formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel or cavity of the heart. Such a blood clot can lodge in a blood vessel blocking circulation and inducing a heart attack or stroke. Thromboembolic disorders are the largest cause of mortality and disability in the industrialized world.
Blood clotting is a process of control of the blood stream essential for the survival of mammals. The process of clotting, and the subsequent dissolution of the clot after wound healing has taken place, commence after vascular damage, and can be divided into four phases. The first phase, vasoconstriction or vasocontraction, can cause a decrease in blood loss in the damaged area. In the next phase, platelet activation by thrombin, platelets attach to the site of the vessel wall damage and form a platelet aggregate. In the third phase, formation of clotting complexes leads to massive formation of thrombin, which converts soluble fibrinogen to fibrin by cleavage of two small peptides. In the fourth phase, after wound healing, the thrombus is dissolved by the action of the key enzyme of the endogenous fibrinolysis system, plasmin.
Two alternative pathways can lead to the formation of a fibrin clot, the intrinsic and the extrinsic pathway. These pathways are initiated by different mechanisms, but in the later phase they converge to give a common final path of the clotting cascade. In this final path of clotting, clotting factor X is activated. The activated factor X is responsible for the formation of thrombin from the inactive precursor prothrombin circulating in the blood. The formation of a thrombus on the bottom of a vessel wall abnormality without a wound is the result of the intrinsic pathway. Fibrin clot formation as a response to tissue damage or an injury is the result of the extrinsic pathway. Both pathways comprise a relatively large number of proteins, which are known as clotting factors. The intrinsic pathway requires the clotting factors V, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII and also prekallikrein, high molecular weight kininogen, calcium ions and phospholipids from platelets. The activation of factor XIa is a central point of intersection between the two pathways of activation of clotting. Factor XIa has an important role in blood clotting.
Coagulation is initiated when blood is exposed to artificial surfaces (e.g., during hemodialysis, “on-pump” cardiovascular surgery, vessel grafts, bacterial sepsis), on cell surfaces, cellular receptors, cell debris, DNA, RNA, and extracellular matrices. This process is also termed contact activation. Surface absorption of factor XII leads to a conformational change in the factor XII molecule, thereby facilitating activation to proteolytic active factor XII molecules (factor 25 XIIa and factor XIIf). Factor XIIa (or XIIf) has a number of target proteins, including plasma prekallikrein and factor XI. Active plasma kallikrein further activates factor XII, leading to an amplification of contact activation. Alternatively, the serine protease prolylcarboxylpeptidase can activate plasma kallikrein complexed with high molecular weight kininogen in a multiprotein complex formed on the surface of cells and matrices (Shariat-Madar et al., Blood, 108:192-199 (2006)). Contact activation is a surface mediated process responsible in part for the regulation of thrombosis and inflammation, and is mediated, at least in part, by fibrinolytic-, complement-, kininogen/kinin-, and other humoral and cellular pathways (for review, Coleman, R., “Contact ActivationPathway”, Hemostasis and Thrombosis, pp. 103-122, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (2001); Schmaier, A. H., “Contact Activation”, Thrombosis and Hemorrhage, pp. 105-128 (1998)). The biological relevance of the contact activation system for thromboembolic 5 diseases is supported by the phenotype of factor XII deficient mice. More specifically, factor XII deficient mice were protected from thrombotic vascular occlusion in several thrombosis models as well as stroke models and the phenotype of the XII deficient mice was identical to XI deficient mice (Renne et al., J Exp. Med., 202:271-281 (2005); Kleinschmitz et al., J Exp. Med., 203:513-518 (2006)). The fact that factor XI is downstream from factor XIIa, combined with the identical phenotype of the XII and XI deficient mice suggest that the contact activation system could play a major role in factor XI activation in vivo.
Plasma kallikrein is a zymogen of a trypsin-like serine protease and is present in plasma. The gene structure is similar to that of factor XI. Overall, the amino acid sequence of plasma kallikrein has 58% homology to factor XI. Proteolytic activation by factor XIIa at an internal I 389-R390 bond yields a heavy chain (371 amino acids) and a light chain (248 amino acids). The active site of plasma kallikrein is contained in the light chain. The light chain of plasma kallikrein reacts with protease 15 inhibitors, including alpha 2 macroglobulin and Cl-inhibitor. Interestingly, heparin significantly accelerates the inhibition of plasma kallikrein by antithrombin III in the presence of high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK). In blood, the majority of plasma kallikrein circulates in complex with HMWK. Plasma kallikrein cleaves HMWK to liberate bradykinin. Bradykinin release results in increase of vascular permeability and vasodilation (for review, Coleman, R., “Contact Activation Pathway”, Hemostasis and Thrombosis, pp. 103-122, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (2001); Schmaier A. H., “Contact Activation”, Thrombosis and Hemorrhage, pp. 105-128 (1998)).
Patients presenting genetic deficiency on C1-esterase inhibitor suffer from hereditary angioedema (HAE), a lifelong disease that results in intermittent swelling throughout the body, including the hands, feet, face, throat, genitals and gastrointestinal tract. Analysis of blisters arising from acute episodes have been shown to contain high levels of plasma kallikrein, and treatment with a protein-based reversible plasma kallikrein inhibitor, Ecallantide (Kalbitor), has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of acute attacks of HAE (Schneider, L, et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 120: p. 416 (2007)).
Additionally, the plasma kallikrein-kinin system is abnormally abundant in patients diagnosed with advanced diabetic macular edema (DME). Recent publications have shown that plasma kallikrein contributes to observed retinal vascular leakage and dysfunction in diabetic rodent models (A. Clermont, et al., Diabetes, 60:1590 (2011)), and that treatment with a small molecule plasma kallikrein inhibitor ameliorated the observed retinal vascular permeability and other abnormalities related to retinal blood flow.
Factor XIa inhibitor compounds are described in WO2014160592, WO2013022814, WO 2013022814, WO 2013022818, WO 2013055984, WO2013056034, WO2013056060, WO2013118805. WO2013093484. WO2002042273, WO2002037937, WO2002060894, WO2003015715, WO2004002405, US20040180855, WO2004080971, WO2004094372, US20050228000, US20050282805, WO2005123680, US20090036438, US20120088758, US20060074103, WO2006062972, WO2006076246, US20060154915, US20090062287, US20060183771, WO2007070818, WO2007070816, WO2007070826, WO2008076805, WO2008157162, WO2009114677, WO2011100402, and WO2011100401.